The meaning and influence to Amazon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

The meaning and influence to Amazon - Essay Example The meaning of leadership at Amazon†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 4.1 Strengths of leadership styles at Amazon†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..7 4.2 Weakness of leadership styles at Amazon †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 5. Reflection of leadership and its strategies at Amazon†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 6. Organizational leadership and the effectiveness of the organization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 7. Leadership style of Amazon company†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.......12 8. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦......14 9. Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 1. Executive summary Organizational success depends on effective leadership styles such as autocratic, lazier faire and democratic leadership, transformational leadership is the most effective in attaining organizational shared objectives. Leadership refers to the act of articulating a shared vision and influencing the efforts of the followers towards attainment of shared organizational goals. Leadership structures at Amazon Company can be identified by two specific concepts personal and the organizational. With respect to the two factors above, Amazon Company mainly concentrates on long-term benefits of the firm. Besides, the orga nizational leaders’ acts on behalf of the entire company not only within their areas of interests but are also expected to extend the assistance across the branches without limiting their operations around their roles. Amazon has skilled leaders who focus on achieving the long-term benefits despite the pressure from competitors like wall mart and other rival firms. Amazon, an online seller is very much pessimistic to the roles played by its leaders and this has led the organization to embrace the Kotters framework of confidentiality in management. The CEO Mr. Bezos had set the in initial leeway that organizational success is unsustainable without ethical code of conduct. Moreover, he articulated that leadership factor indicates a direct strategy to the success at Amazon Company due to leadership style that is very much particular to a significant effect on performance on both the employees and the organizational productivity. The type of leadership that is practiced at Amazon is termed as participative or democratic. Through this leadership style, all members of the organization are recognized as partisans to the decision making process, this helps in determining what is perceived to be right concerning the organizational development. 2. Introduction All forms of organizations recognize leadership as a vital aspect for their success. With respect to this, leadership therefore acts as a crucial link that instigates change amongst the members of the organization. Several articles have pointed out that leadership influences the efforts of followers in the organization by acting as an element that binds all the stakeholders towards the specific goals and objectives of the organization. Even though leadership styles may vary, all organizational leaders must poses some specific characteristics that aims in changing the entire organization with the main perspective of ensuring sustainable output development. For somebody to be branded as a good leader then, he must poses distinct roles that that can be used as

Relocating Margaret Thatchers in the Workplace Essay Example for Free

Relocating Margaret Thatchers in the Workplace Essay Working environments are dimensions in which the individual’s skills, talents and production capabilities are put into the test. The war-like situation manifested in corporate arenas continues to post a challenge to each and every individual. It is a legitimized jungle wherein only the strong remains and the weak perish. Thus, for every struggle that is addressed, this spells sweet victory for the triumphant warrior. It is for this aspect that Karsten described the workplace a source of one’s â€Å"sense of self, power and prestige (162). † As the individual continue to climb the corporate ladder, his or her â€Å"sense of self, power and prestige (Karsten 162)† continue to increase. This is most especially true in scenarios wherein leadership roles are assumed and performed. However, a critical examination shows that holding power, garnering respect and expressing authority have exclusively remained in the hands of men. The opportunity to lead has been an exclusive right of males and women, despite of the strong campaign to uphold equality, are continuously pushed to the periphery. Women leadership remains a critical issue in the corporate environment. Despite of the efforts to render equal opportunities to both men and women, the actions taken, remained futile. Women as leaders are still seen from a derogatory perspective. As Spade and Valentine described, work places are no less than â€Å"gendered institutions† that operate under â€Å"inequality regimes (341). † Under this context, it can be argued that the so-called â€Å"inequality regimes† mentioned in this discussion, is no less than the hegemonic and oppressive patriarchal orientations that are highly manifested in various work spaces. Drawing on Dahrendorf’s distribution of power and authority (Lemell Noll, 52), it is evident that many working environments deprive women from having equal chances or access to positions that demand an exercise of power and control. Also, power legitimacy as for the case of women leaders are often questioned or blatantly ignored. While it is true that women have managed to acquire managerial positions, Ely et. al expressed that only 1 % of these females are CEOs of Fortune 500 companies or establishments (161). Likewise, Ely et. al mentioned that in terms of governmental positions and functions, only a small percentage of women can be observed. The seemingly under representation and to a certain extent—total absence of women leaders in the corporate world is triggered by society’s patriarchal culture. The practices seen in the business world reflect the manipulative and discriminating orientation of the patriarchal system. Under this context, societal roles and functions are highly determined by gender. Men are seen as the stronger sex whereas women are the exact opposite. Women are constantly confined into domestic roles. They are mothers and wives whose values and worth are best exemplified in the bedroom and kitchen. Thus, their entries into the workplace or business environments are often seen as a threat. In addition to that, this scenario highly contradicts the so-called â€Å"normative behaviors (Ridgeway 223)† of world. Leadership in business environments translates to performing firm decision, asserting authority and showing direct control, if necessary. Needless to say, these traits or characteristics are often played or portrayed by men. On the other hand, the idea of being a mere â€Å"follower† is relegated to women. Therefore, in the event wherein a woman leader practices authority, utilizes power and make decisions, these scenario is immediately dismissed as a violation of the canonical norms not only of the workplace, but also of the overall social structure (Ridgeway 223). The problem with women executives or leaders is that their socially-constructed roles are mixed with their corporate or work-related functions. The merit of their leadership skills and capabilities are based on how well they perform their overtly stereotyped duties and obligations. When women act like leaders, the patriarchal system immediately questions their efficiency via insisting the women’s highly biased and gender-based tasks (Ridgeway 223). As Ridgeway stressed, women leaders are initially seen as a woman, then a leader (223). Gender would always come first and leadership capabilities are only secondary. There are several ways in which women are prevented from acquiring leadership positions in the workplace. The first one is illustrated by the â€Å"glass ceiling concept (Goethals Burns 77). Under this context, women are blatantly deprived of acquiring leadership positions via unequal distribution of chances and opportunities (Goethals Burns 77). This is despite of eliciting commendable work-related achievements and success. The glass ceiling acts as a barricade that prevents women from being hailed as managers and executives despite delivering good results and performances (Haslett, Geis Carter 128). In addition to that, it is also evident that women are placed into positions or departments in which they cannot possibly harness their leadership skills (Goethals, Sorenson Burns 77). They are subjected into roles that do not engage into actual corporate management and decision making. Therefore, in the event in which women are recommended for promotions, their skills and experience readily lag behind. Or in such cases, a woman must shoulder the entire burden of exerting efforts and energy to prove themselves, but with no assurance that they will be selected. But then again even if some women were able to secure their positions on the corporate hierarchy, Goethal, Sorenson and Burns shared that this is no less than a defense mechanism used to avoid accusations of gender discrimination and inequality (77). Aside from the glass ceiling, the persistence of the seemingly omnipotent â€Å"old boy network (Goethals, Sorenson Burns 77)† is also instrumental in the under representation of women leaders. A critical examination of the old boy network clearly shows the strong attempt of men to protect their own interests (Sanchez et. al 240). There is the intention to keep power in the hands of the few and eliminate new players. This basically explains the degree of favoritism in promotions. Men often receive high preference compared to women not because they are better or more productive. Instead, this is just a way to preserve the patriarchal rule. Since majority of senior executives are men, their power legitimacy is highly acknowledged and recognized. This kind of prestige is then used by males to control, manipulate and safeguard their interests. Thus, to ensure that their power and authority shall remain, these executives are more likely to choose male protegees—individuals, who like them, present a common set of beliefs, ideologies and value systems. Lastly, the limited access of women to building social networks lessens their chances of being corporate leaders (Goethals, Sorenson Burns 78). Goethals, Sorenson and Burns mentioned that â€Å"informal gatherings† is a way for women to connect with other individuals in the business organizations (78). It is through these activities that women can further improve their social and communication skills—two of the most significant traits that leaders should acquire. However, these opportunities are hardly given to women. Other than obstructing women to create meaningful relationships and camaraderie, this scenario also inhibits females from having their own mentors and role models (Klenke 185). Mentors and role models serve as a support system. Through them, valuable knowledge and insights are shared and transmitted. Mentoring relationships help potential leaders devise sound decisions and appropriate solutions. Unfortunately, this right is highly exclusive to men. The struggles and challenges faced by women leaders in the corporate system is yet another gender issue that should be readily addressed. Leadership roles should not be equated to gender-based functions. Equal rights and opportunities should be provided to both genders and should not be an exclusive privilege of men. It should be stressed and remembered that leadership efficiency is determined by skills and performances, never by gender. Works Cited Sanchez, Penny; Philip Hucles; Janis Sanchez-Hucles and Sanjay Mehta. â€Å"Increasing Diverse Women Leadership in Corporate America: Climbing Concrete Walls and Shattering Glass Ceilings. † Women and Leadership Transforming Visions and Diverse Voices Eds. Jean Lau Chin; Bernice Lott; Joy Rice and Janis Sanchez-Hucles. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2007 Ely, Robin; Erica Foldy; Maureen Scully and The Center for Gender in Organizations Simmons School of Management. Reader in Gender, Work and Organization. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2003 Goethal, George; Georgia Sorenson and James MacGregor Burns. Encyclopedia of Leadership. California: Sage Publications Inc, 2004 Haslett, Beth; Florence Geis and Mae Carter. The Organizational Woman. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1992 Karsten, Margaret. Gender, Race and Ethnicity in the Workplace. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 Klenke, Karin. Women Leadership. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1996 Lemell, Yannick and Heinz-Herbert Noll. Changing Structures of Inequality: A Comparative Perspective. Canada: Mc-Gill Queen’s University Press, 2002 Ridgeway, Cecilia. Gender Interaction and Inequality. New York: Springer –Verlag New York Inc. , 1992 Spade, Joan and Catherine Valentine. The Ka

The Pritting Press Essay -- essays research papers

In 1440 a man by the man of Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type, or as we know it, a printing press. Prior to 1440 everything read in Europe was copied by hand or copied from wooden blocks carved from hand. This was very expensive and time consuming. The only people who were literate were those of the church and a small percentage of nobility. Since the printing press came out, how would this effect European culture and the way things worked?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The printing press had many effects on Europe. Very few peasants could read and besides that there wasn’t much to read but scriptures. The things that were being read were hand written and of course this took a long time and so not many people wanted to take the time to do it. Monks spent there days and nights copying and writing scriptures in solitude. At the time Latin was the only language the bible was written in, this was about to change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The time the printing press was invented was the era of the Renaissance. The Renaissance era is known for inventions and art and new ideas. The printing press was just one of the many inventions that came out of the Renaissance era. I believe this to be one of the biggest inventions to come out around this time because it changed everything and the way we read now. I am sure that someone else later would have thought of this but for the time if brought on new ideas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the ideas that came about we...

Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power in Usa

NUCLEAR POWER GEOGRAPHY HOMEWORK 10/27/2012 DAISY SOWAH FORM 5W PROS AND CONS OF NUCLEAR POWER IN THE USA Worldwide, there are 441 nuclear power plants that supply about 16 percent of the world's electricity. There are currently 104 operating U. S. nuclear power plants that produce over 20 percent of U. S. electricity. ADVANTAGES a) Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). The emissions of green house gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming is therefore relatively little. USA is currently responsible for a quarter of all carbon dioxide emissions – an average of 40,000 pounds of carbon dioxide is released by each US citizen every year – the highest of any country in the world, and more than China, India and Japan combined, the increased used of nuclear power will do well to curb these emissions. b) High Load Factor – Nuclear Power Plants have very high load factors in excess of 80%.Th ey can generate power almost 24/7 and only require shutdown for periodic maintenance c) Huge   Potential –Nuclear Energy Potential is almost infinite compared to the limited and peak features of other forms of   energy like Wind,Geothermal,Oil,Gas and others. Only Solar Energy can be said to have more potential. d) Low Electricity Cost – The Electricity produced from Nuclear Power is quite low at around 3-5c/Kwh making it very attractive to construct hydro plants e) Low Fuel Cost – Large amounts of Nuclear Energy can be produced from the fission on radioactive elements like uranium.The costs of nuclear fuel is relatively   very low compared to other energy sources like coal and gas. Also uranium prices currently are quite low making the nuclear electricity price even lower. About $100 a poundof uranium but a barrel of Brent crude oil is $114 a barrel but lasts for a much shorter period of time CHALLENGES 1. Nuclear and Radiation Accidents – This is the biggest con for Nuclear Energy and has been repeated 3 times in the last 30 years in Japan, Russia and USA.The fear of a repeat is so great that despite all the safety arrangements touted by the nuclear equipment operators and suppliers, Nuclear Energy faces an uncertain future The worst nuclear accident in U. S. history took place on March 28, 1979 at the Three Mile Island plant in Pennsylvania. A cooling system failed, causing a partial meltdown, but a full meltdown was averted and there were no fatalities. However, despite the positive outcome and despite the passage of more than 30 years, the incident remains fresh in the minds of those who are old enough to remember it. 2.Nuclear Waste Disposal – Again a massive problem as the spent Nuclear Rods of Nuclear Reactors are prohibitively costly and difficult to dispose of. Spent nuclear fuel is initially very highly radioactive and so must be handled with great care and forethought. (10'000 years according to United State s Environmental Protection Agency standards). There is no foolproof way to dispose nuclear waste fuel after it is used in the Nuclear Reactors. The area around Nuclear Waste Sites can be dangerous to humans for hundreds of year as complex nuclear elements have half lives running into many years.The United States had accumulated more than 50,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors. Permanent storage underground in U. S. had been proposed at the Yucca but that project has now been effectively cancelled. There is presently no adequate safe long-term storage for radioactive and chemical waste produced from early reactors, such as those in Hanford, Washington, some of which will need to be safely sealed and stored for thousands of years. 3. Regulations – The Regulations for Nuclear Energy Power Plants are many and cumbersome due to the massive risks of a failure of a nuclear reactor.This greatly increases the costs of generating nuclear power. It also leads to a long time in the actual start to the completion of a Nuclear Plant . 4. Fuel Danger – Uranium which is the main fuel used in Nuclear Fission Power Plants is limited to a few countries and suppliers. Its use and transport is regulated by international treaties and groups. 5. Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety – if it does go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster. Despite a generally high security standard, accidents can still happen.It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security. A small probability of failure will always last. The consequences of an accident would be absolutely devastating both for human being as for the nature. The more nuclear power plants (and nuclear waste storage shelters) are built, the higher is the probability of a disastrous failure somewhere in the world. People are increasingly concerned about this – in the 1990's nuclear power was the fastest-growing source of power in much of the world. In 2005 it was the second slowest-growing. 6. The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium.Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand. March 11, 2010 nightmare scenario: Terrorism at a nuke power plant. Nuclear meltdown. Level 7 core damage blows through the 6 foot thick reinforced containment structure releasing highly radioactive elements into the atmosphere and surrounding environment. 7. Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred targets for terrorist attacks. No atomic energy plant in the world could withstand an attack similar to 9/11 in New York. Such a terrorist act would have catastrophic effects for the whole world.

Sony Case 1991-2003

Exploring Corporate Strategy CLASSIC CASE STUDIES Restructuring Sony Vivek Gupta and Konakanchi Prashanth The electronics and media giant Sony was struggling through the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century. With each disappointment, it seemed that Sony’s management launched another restructuring of the company. By 2003, commentators were beginning to ask whether restructuring was part of the solution or part of the problem. How should Sony be managing its strategic renewal? G G GAs conditions change, Sony has to change accordingly, because their conventional strategy won’t transcend to the Internet-enabled model. 1 Mitchell Levy, author of The Value Framework INTRODUCTION For the first quarter ending 30 June 2003, Japan-based Sony Corporation (Sony)2 stunned the corporate world by reporting a decline in net profit of 98 per cent. Sony reported a net profit of ? 9. 3 million compared to ? 1. 1 billion for the same quarter in 2002. Sony’s revenues fell by 6. 9 per cent to ? 1. 6 trillion for the corresponding period.Analysts were of the opinion that Sony’s expenditure on its restructuring initiatives had caused a significant dent in its profitability. In the financial year 2002–03, Sony had spent a massive ? 100bn on restructuring (? ?500m; ? a750m). Moreover, the company had already announced in April 2003 about its plans to spend another ? 1 trillion on a major restructuring initiative in the next three years. Analysts criticised Sony’s management for spending a huge amount on frequent restructuring of its consumer electronics business, which accounted for nearly two-thirds of Sony’s revenues.In 2003, the sales of the consumer electronics division fell by 6. 5 per cent. Notably, Sony’s business operations were restructured five times in the past nine years. Analysts opined that Sony’s excessive focus on the maturing consumer electronics business (profit margin below 1 per cent in 2002†“03), coupled with increasing competition in the consumer electronics industry was severely affecting its profitability. 1 2 ‘Sony Analyzed via the Value Framework’, Mitchell Levy, posted on www. ecmgt. com, October 2002. Sony was established in 1946.The company invented the video recorder, walkman and mini-disc recorder. It is a leading manufacturer of audio, video, communications and information technology products. Sony has also forayed into diverse fields like music, television, computer entertainment and motion pictures. The company is engaged in five main lines of business – electronics, games, music, pictures and financial services. This case was prepared by Vivek Gupta and Konakanchi Prashanth of the ICFAI Center for Management Research, Hyderabad, India.It is intended as a basis for class discussion and not as an illustration of either good or bad management practice.  © V. Gupta and K. Prashanth, 2004. Not to be reproduced or quoted without permissi on. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 1 Restructuring Sony Table 1 Sony’s financials (1991–2003) Year ended March 31 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 * ? 100 = approx. A0. 75. Source: Annual Reports 1991–2003, www. sony. net. Sales & Operating Revenue (? bn)* 3695. 51 3928. 67 3992. 92 3744. 8 3990. 58 4592. 56 5663. 13 6755. 49 6804. 18 6686. 66 7314. 82 7578. 26 7473. 63 Operating Income/loss (? bn) 302. 18 179. 55 126. 46 106. 96 ? 166. 64 235. 32 370. 33 520. 21 338. 06 223. 20 225. 35 134. 63 185. 44 Net Income/loss (? bn) 116. 92 120. 12 36. 26 15. 30 ? 293. 36 54. 25 139. 46 222. 07 179. 00 121. 83 16. 75 15. 31 115. 52 However, Sony’s officials felt that the restructuring measures were delivering the desired results. According to them, the company had shown a significant jump in its profitability in the financial year 2002–03.Sony reported a net income of ? 115. 52bn in the fiscal 2002–03 compared to ? 15. 31bn in 2001–02. (See Table 1 for Sony’s key financials in the past 13 years. ) A statement issued by Sony said, ‘The improvement in the results was partly due to the restructuring of its electronics business, especially in the components units. ’3 At the beginning of the new millennium, Sony faced increased competition from domestic and foreign players (Korean companies like Samsung and LG) in its electronics and entertainment businesses.The domestic rivals Matsushita and NEC were able to capture a substantial market share in the internet-ready cell phones market. Analysts felt that the US-based software giants like Microsoft and Sun Microsystems and the networking major Cisco Systems posed a serious threat to Sony’s home entertainment business. BACKGROUND On 7 May 1946, Masaru Ibuka (Ibuka) and Akio Morita (Morita)4 co-founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineer ing Corporation) with an initial capital of ? 190,000 in the city of Nagoya, Japan.They gave importance to product innovation and decided to offer innovative, high-quality products to their consumers. The founders introduced many new products like the magnetic tape recorder, the ‘pocketable radio’, and more. By the 1960s, the company had established itself in Japan and changed its name to Sony Corporation. During the 1960s, the company focused on globalisation and entered the US and European markets. In the 1970s, Sony also set up manufacturing units in the US and Europe. During this period, Sony developed and introduced the Walkman, which was a huge success.It significantly boosted Sony’s sales during the 1980s. By the mid-1980s, Sony’s consumer products were marketed in Europe through subsidiaries in the UK, Germany and France. 3 4 ‘Financial Results for the Second Quarter, FY 2002’, posted on www. sony. net, 28 October 2002. Akio Morita was a graduate in physics, while Masaru Ibuka had a degree in electronic engineering. When Morita joined the Japanese navy as a Lieutenant, he met Ibuka at the navy’s Wartime Research Committee. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 2 Restructuring SonyTable 2 Sony’s businesses (1994) Business Electronics Product Groups/Companies Video equipment Details Comprises 8mm, VHS, and Beta-format VTRs, laserdisc players, broadcast and industrial use video equipment, Hi-Vision-related equipment, and videotapes. Comprises CD players, Mini Disc system, headphone stereos, personal component stereos, hi-fi components, digital audio tape recorders/players, radio-cassette tape recorders, tape recorders, radios, car stereos, car navigation systems, professional-use audio equipment, audio tapes, and blank MDs.Comprises colour TVs, Hi-Vision TVs, computer displays, professional-use monitors, satellite broadcast reception systems, projector systems, and large colour video display systems. Comprises semiconductors, electronic components, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), telephone and telecommunications equipment, computers, computer peripherals (including floppy disk systems and CD-ROM systems), home video game systems, batteries, and FA systems. Includes Columbia Records Group; Epic Records Group; TriStar Music Group; Sony Music International; Sony Classical; Sony Classical Film & Video; Sony Wonder; Sony Music Entertainment (Japan) Inc.Includes the Columbia TriStar Motion Picture Companies; Sony Television Entertainment; Columbia TriStar Home Video; and Sony Pictures Studios and The Culver Studios. Sony Retail Entertainment includes Sony Theatres. Comprises the insurance business of Sony Life Insurance Company Limited and the finance operations of Sony Finance International. Audio equipment Television Others Entertainment Music Group – Sony Music Entertainment Pictures Group – Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc. (SPEI) Insurance and Finan ce Sony Life Insurance and Sony Finance InternationalSource: Sony Annual Report 1995, www. sony. net. In 1989, Norio Ohga (Ohga) took over as the chairman and CEO of Sony from Morita. Under Ohga, Sony began to place greater emphasis on process innovations that improved efficiency and controlled product costs. By 1994, Sony’s businesses were organised into three broad divisions – Electronics, Entertainment and Insurance and Finance (see Table 2). Each business division was in turn split into product groups. The electronics business division was split into four product groups, which produced a wide variety of products.The entertainment division, which consisted of the music group and the pictures group, made music videos and motion pictures. The finance division consisted of Sony’s life insurance and finance business. The company’s growth was propelled by the launch of innovative products and by its foray into the music and films business. Restructuring of electronics business (1994) Under Ohga’s leadership, Sony witnessed negligible growth in sales during 1990 and 1994. Sales and operating revenues improved by only 2 per cent during that period.However, the net income and operating income registered a drastic fall of 87 per cent and 67 per cent respectively. Analysts felt that the stagnation in the electronics industry coupled with factors such as the recession in the Japanese economy and the appreciation of the yen against the dollar led to the deterioration in the company’s performance. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 3 Restructuring Sony Table 3 Sales performance of the electronics business (1991–95) (in ? bn)* Year/ Business 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 * ? 100 = approx. A0. 75. Source: Sony Annual Report 1995, www. ony. net. Video Equipment 928 896 828 669 691 Audio Equipment 882 948 928 841 899 Televisions 552 593 634 618 709 Others 619 793 772 817 909 It was noticed that in the e lectronics business (see Table 3), the revenues of the video and audio equipment businesses were coming down or were at best stagnant, while the television and ‘Others’ group were showing signs of improvement. The ‘Others’ group, which consisted of technology intensive products such as computer products, video games, semiconductors and telecom equipment, was performing very well and had a growth rate of nearly 40 per cent.In order to focus on the high growth businesses, Sony announced major changes in the structure of its electronics business in April 1994. Sony’s management felt that the ‘Group’ structure, which had fuelled the company’s growth in the 1980s, was proving to be redundant in the dynamic business environment of the 1990s. In the new structure, the product groups of the electronics businesses were regrouped into eight divisional companies. The eight companies were the Consumer Audio & Video Products Company, the Recor ding Media & Energy Company, the Broadcast Products Company, theBusiness & Industrial Systems Company, the InfoCom Products Company, the Mobile Electronics Company, the Components Company, and the Semiconductor Company. The restructuring exercise laid special focus on the products that formed the ‘Others’ group. Each divisional company had its own goals and was responsible for all its operations (production, sales and finance). The presidents of the divisional companies were authorised to decide upon the investments to be made up to a prescribed limit. They could also take decisions regarding the HR issues for all employees up to the level of divisional director.In addition, they were made responsible for the financial performance of the companies headed by them. Sony’s presidents were expected to perform a role similar to that of CEOs and were accountable to shareholders. The restructuring of Sony’s electronics business was aimed at improving the companyà ¢â‚¬â„¢s focus on high potential products and expediting the decision making process to make the company more responsive to changing market conditions. Following the restructuring, the number of layers in the decision-making process was reduced from six to a maximum of four layers.Commenting on his responsibilities within the new structure, Ohga said, ‘First of all, I would like for the divisional presidents to run their companies as if they were reporting to shareholders once a year at a shareholders’ meeting. My role will be to review their strategies, examine any points I feel should be questioned and provide advice when and where necessary. ’5 The main goals of Sony’s newly formed organisation system were explained in a memorandum entitled ‘The Introduction of the Company within a Company System’ (see Table 4).Explaining the rationale for the new system, Ohga said, ‘By revitalising its organization, Sony aims to introduce appealing p roducts in the market in a timelier fashion while further strengthening cost-competitiveness companywide. ’6 In 1995, after the implementation of the divisional company structure in the electronics business, changes were announced in Sony’s management structure. Under the new framework, Sony was to be led by a team of executives at the top management level.The team included the Chairman & CEO, Vice Chairman, President & Chief Operating Officer (COO), Chief Officers and the presidents of divisional companies. Analysts felt that Sony’s management took this measure to reduce the company’s reliance on 5 6 ‘From a Business Group System to a Divisional Company System’, posted on www. sony. net. As quoted in the 1995 annual report, posted on www. sony. net. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 4 Restructuring Sony Table 4 Five main goals of the new systemG To further enhance core businesses while developing new ones. G To i ntroduce an organisational structure in which sales and production work closely together and respond quickly to market changes. G To simplify the structure to clarify responsibilities and transfer authority, thus ensuring quick responses to external changes. G To reduce the levels of hierarchy in the organisation. G To encourage the entrepreneurial spirit in order to foster a dynamic management base for the 21st century. Source: ‘From a Business Group System to a Divisional Company System’, posted on www. ony. net. a single leader. In March 1995, Nobuyuki Idei (Idei) was appointed the President and Chief Operating Officer of Sony. Despite the organisational changes, the financial performance of Sony deteriorated in 1995. For the fiscal year ending March 1995, Sony reported a huge net loss of ? 293. 36bn. The write off of goodwill during 1994, the poor performance of the Pictures group and the strength of the yen were regarded as major reasons for this loss. During 1994, the yen was at an all-time high against the dollar, making Sony’s exports uncompetitive.Analysts also felt that Sony’s consumer electronics business lacked new, innovative products. Given this poor financial performance, the top management of Sony decided to integrate the company’s various domestic and global business functions such as marketing, R&D, finance, and HR. The functions of its numerous divisional companies were thus brought under the direct purview of headquarters. Idei also decided to strengthen the existing eight-company structure and to lay more emphasis on R&D in the IT field. He felt that Sony needed to focus on developing IT-related businesses.Accordingly, Sony’s management reorganised the existing structure to create a new ten-company structure. THE TEN-COMPANY STRUCTURE (1996) In January 1996, a new ten-company structure was announced, replacing the previous eight-company structure (see Table 5). Under the new structure, the previous Consumer Audio & Video (A&V) company was split into three new companies – the Display Company, the Home AV Company and the Personal AV Company. A new company, the Information Technology Company, was created to focus on Sony’s business interests in the PC and IT industry.The Infocom Products Company and the Mobile Electronics Company were merged to create the Personal & Mobile Communications Company. The other companies formed were the Components & Computer Peripherals Company (formerly called the Components Company), the Recording Media & Energy Company, the Broadcast Products Company, the Image & Sound Communications Company (formerly called the Business & Industrial Systems Company) and the Semiconductor Company. Table 5 Basic features of the ten-company structure G A new company structure to promote quicker, more effective operations that better reflect market changes.G The establishment of an Executive Board to reinforce headquarters and corporate strategy and mana gement functions. G The appointment of new companies and groups for entering into the IT and telecommunications businesses. G The consolidation of marketing functions. G The establishment of Corporate Laboratories for new business development. G The training of promising young talent to foster future managers. Source: ‘Sony Announces a New Corporate Structure’, posted on www. sony. net, dated 16 January 1996.Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 5 Restructuring Sony In order to devise and implement the corporate strategies of the Sony Group, an Executive Board was created. The board was chaired by Idei. The other members of the board included the Chief Human Resources Officer, the Chief Production Officer, the Chief Marketing Officer, the Chief Communications Officer, the Chief Technology Officer, the Chief Financial Officer, the Executive Deputy President & Representative Director and the Senior Managing Director.In an attempt to consolidate th e marketing operations of Sony, the marketing divisions that belonged to the previous organisational setup were spun off to create three new marketing groups – the Japan Marketing Group (JMG), the International Marketing & Operations Group (IM&O) and the Electronic Components & Devices Marketing Group (ECDMG). The JMG was responsible for all marketing activities in Japan for five companies – the Display Company, the Home AV Company, the Information Technology Company, the Personal AV Company and the Image & Sound Communications Company.The IM&O was responsible for supporting all overseas marketing efforts for these companies. The ECDMG oversaw the worldwide marketing operations for the Semiconductor Company and the Components & Computer Peripherals Company. Analysts felt that this consolidation was done to separate Sony’s Japanese marketing operations from its worldwide operations so that the company could operate in a focused manner. To centralise all the R&D e fforts of Sony, the previous R&D structure (in which each company had its own R&D division) was revamped and three new corporate laboratories were established.The laboratories were the Architecture Laboratory (responsible for carrying out R&D for software, network and IT-related technologies), the Product Development Laboratory (R&D for product development in AV businesses) and the System & LSI Laboratory (R&D for LSI and system design, the basic components of hardware products). In addition, a new D21 laboratory was established to conduct long-term R&D for future oriented technology intensive products. Sony also gave emphasis to grooming young, talented people to take up top management positions. The company also introduced the oncept of ‘virtual companies’ – temporary groups consisting of people from different divisions for launching hybrid products. Sony applied this idea when developing the latest generation Mini Disk players. For the financial year 1995†“96, Sony registered a 15 per cent increase in revenues and became profitable again. In April 1998, a new organisation, Corporate Information Systems Solutions (CISS), was established to realign and upgrade Sony’s information network systems and its global supply chain. The CISS comprised an advisory committee of individuals from management consultancy firms and Sony’s CISS representatives.The committee members advised the President on technological and strategic issues related to CISS. Representatives of the CISS were placed in all divisional companies to accelerate the implementation of corporate IT projects. During early 1998, Sony formed Sony Online Entertainment in the US to focus on internet-related projects. In May 1998, Sony changed the composition of its board of directors and established the new position of Co-Chief Executive Officer (Co-CEO). Idei was appointed Co-CEO. Idei reshuffled the management system to facilitate speedy decision making, improve effi ciency, and provide greater role clarity to managers.The new system separated individuals responsible for policy-making from those who were responsible for operations. Under the new system, Idei was responsible for planning and designing Sony’s strategies and supervising the growth of e-business. Along with Ohga, he had to supervise the performance of the entire Sony group. President Ando was made responsible for overseeing Sony’s core electronics business, while Chief Financial Officer (CFO) Tokunaka was made responsible for the company’s financial strategies and network businesses.In addition, the top management positions of Sony’s global subsidiaries, which were previously called Corporate Executive Officers, were redesignated Group Executive Officers. Explaining the rationale for these changes, a Sony spokesman said, ‘These changes are aimed at making Sony’s management more agile’. 7 7 ‘Sony Names Management Team’, by Yoshiko Hara, EE Times, 9 May 2000. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 6 Restructuring Sony Table 6 Sales performance of Sony’s businesses (1995–99) (in ? bn)* Year/Business 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 CAGR (4 years) ? 100 = approx. A0. 75. Source: Sony Annual Report, 1999, posted on www. sony. net. Electronics 3027 3283 3930 4377 4355 8. 55% Game 35 201 408 700 760 215% Music 481 506 570 660 719 10. 5% Pictures 282 317 439 643 540 17% Insurance 113 207 228 291 339 31% Others 52 78 88 84 81 11. 7% The implications From 1995 to 1999, Sony’s electronics business (on which the restructuring efforts were focused) grew at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8. 55 per cent (see Table 6). The music business had a CAGR of 10. 5 per cent while the pictures business had a CAGR of 17 per cent.Significant gains were, however, recorded by the games and insurance business. The games business registered a CAGR of 215 per cent, while the insurance business registered a CAGR of 31 per cent. In the late 1990s, Sony’s financial performance deteriorated. For the financial year 1998–99, its net income dropped by 19. 4 per cent. During that period, Sony was banking heavily on its PlayStation computer game machines. It was estimated that the PlayStation (Games business) accounted for nearly 42 per cent of Sony’s operating profits and 15 per cent of total sales for the quarter October–December 1998.In the late 1990s, many companies across the world were attempting to cash in on the internet boom. At that time, Sony’s management felt the need to establish a link between its electronics business (TVs, music systems, computers) and its content-related businesses (music, video games, movies and financial services) by making use of the internet. The management felt that in future, the revenues generated by internet-related businesses might even surpass those earned through the consumer electronics busin ess. It wanted to use the internet as a medium for selling its electronic products as well as its content (music, movies and so on).In order to achieve this, Sony announced another reorganisation of business operations. Analysts felt that Sony was in a good position to exploit the opportunities offered by the internet since the company already had an established position in the electronics and content-related businesses. THE UNIFIED-DISPERSED MANAGEMENT MODEL In April 1999, Sony announced changes in its organisational structure. Through the new framework, the company aimed at streamlining its business operations to better exploit the opportunities offered by the internet.Sony’s key business divisions – Consumer Electronics division, Components division, Music division and the Games division – were reorganised into network businesses. This involved the reduction of ten divisional companies into three network companies, Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) Company an d the Broadcasting & Professional Systems (B&PS) Company (see Exhibit 1). SCE Company was responsible for the PlayStation business while the B&PS Company supplied video and audio equipment for business, broadcast, education, industrial, medical and production related markets.The restructuring aimed at achieving three objectives – strengthening the electronics business, privatising three Sony subsidiaries, and strengthening the management capabilities. The restructuring also aimed at enhancing shareholder value through ‘Value Creation Management’. 8 8 It aimed at creating value by dividing the group into networked autonomous business units such that the resources within the Sony Group complemented each other. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 7 Restructuring Sony Exhibit 1 The unified-dispersed management modelSource: ‘Sony Announces Organization Structure for New Network Companies’, posted on www. sony. net, 29 March 1999 . Strengthening the electronics business The three network companies created were the Home Network Company, the Personal IT Network Company and the Core Technology & Network Company. Each network company was governed by a network company management committee (NCMC) and a network committee board (NCB). The NCMC was responsible for developing management policies and strategies. Its members included the officers and presidents of the concerned network company.The NCB was responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of the network company while keeping in mind the overall corporate strategy of the entire organisation. Each NCB was chaired by the concerned company’s President & CEO, Deputy President, President and Representative Director, two Executive Deputy Presidents and Representative Directors, and Corporate Senior Vice President. The new structure aimed at decentralising the worldwide operations of the company. The corporate headquarters gave the network companies the authority to function as autonomous entities in their corresponding businesses.To facilitate more functional and operational autonomy, the corporate headquarters also transferred the required support functions and R&D labs to each network company. To give a further boost to Sony’s electronics business, the management created Digital Network Solutions (DNS) under the purview of headquarters. The role of DNS was to create a network business model by charting strategies and developing essential technologies for exploiting the opportunities offered by the internet. The basic aim of creating DNS was to develop a network base that would provide customers with digital content (such as music and movies) and financial services.Privatising Sony’s subsidiaries As part of its strategy to promote functional and operational autonomy and to devote more attention to units which contributed significantly to its revenues and profits, Sony decided to convert three of its companies â€⠀œ Sony Music Entertainment ( Japan), Sony Chemical Corporation (manufactured printed circuit boards (PCBs), recording media and automotive batteries), and Sony Precision Technology (manufactured semiconductor inspection equipment and precision measuring devices) – into wholly Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 8 Restructuring Sony owned subsidiaries of Sony.In addition, Sony converted SCE, which was jointly owned by Sony and Sony Music Entertainment ( Japan), into a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony. Strengthening the management capability To strengthen the management capability, Sony clearly demarcated the roles of headquarters and the newly created network companies. Accordingly, distinction was made between the strategic and support functions. Sony’s headquarters was split into two separate units – Group Headquarters and Business Unit Support. The role of Group Headquarters was to oversee group operations and expedite the allocation of resources within the group.The support functions, such as accounting, human resources and general affairs, were handled by the network companies so that they could enjoy more autonomy in their operations. Significant long-term R&D projects were directly supervised by the headquarters, while the immediate and short-term R&D projects were transferred to the concerned network companies. In order to evaluate the performance of the network companies, a value based performance measurement system9 was introduced. The implications While pursuing its restructuring efforts, Sony started developing products which were compatible with the internet.Its electronic products, such as digital cameras, personal computers, music systems, and Walkman, were made web compatible. Through its website, www. sony. net, consumers could participate in popular television game shows, listen to music, and download songs and movie trailers. Sony also ventured into e-business with the acquisition of Sky Perfect Communications. 10 While focusing on offering internet-enabled products, Sony also attempted to increase internet penetration by offering internet connection at lower cost and higher speed to consumers in urban areas. Sony’s restructuring efforts in 1999 were well received by investors.Following the announcement of the restructuring programme, Sony’s stock prices nearly tripled. This positive trend continued even in 2000. By March 2000, its stock prices were at a high of $152. Having already offered its PlayStation game console on the internet, Sony successfully launched its PlayStation 2 (PS2) video game console in Japan in March 2000. The PS2 sold 980,000 units within the first three days of its launch. However, Sony still faced problems since its other businesses, including electronics, movies, personal computers, and mobile telecommunications, were not performing well.Analysts felt that the low internet penetration rate in Japan (estimated to be 13 per cent in 199 9) was proving to be a major hurdle for Sony. Consequently, Sony’s financial performance deteriorated by the end of 1990s. For fiscal 1999 –2000, Sony’s net income fell to ? 121. 83bn compared to ? 179bn in the fiscal 1998–99. This resulted in a major fall in its stock prices. By May 2000, Sony’s stock prices fell by 40 per cent to $89. Analysts were quick to criticise Sony’s efforts towards transforming itself into a web-enabled company.They commented that the company had created more hype rather than taking a few significant steps in this regard. In response to these financial problems, Sony announced a reshuffle in its top management. Idei became the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Sony. Ando, who headed Sony’s PC division, was 9 A system that helps in effectively determining the cost of capital. The measurement is based on economic profit, which is calculated by subtracting the cost of debt and equity from the operating pr ofit after tax. Sony planned to use this system of measurement to set targets and evaluate business unit performance.The performance was to be linked, in future, with management compensation. 10 A popular satellite broadcasting company in Japan which owned Sky Perfect TV and had successfully ventured into the internet service provider (ISP) business by launching the website, www. so-net. This website enabled online shopping, interactive games, fortune telling as well as stockbroking. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 9 Restructuring Sony made the President, while Tokunaka, who previously headed the PlayStation unit, was made the Chief Financial Officer of Sony.Sony also undertook a massive cost-cutting exercise. Its global manufacturing facilities were reduced from 70 in 1999 to 65 in 2001. Sony planned to further bring down the number of manufacturing facilities to 55 by the end of 2003. This move would result in the elimination of 17,000 jobs. While im plementing these measures, the company had to deal with severe resistance from employee unions and local governments (in areas where jobs would be eliminated). Despite the above measures, Sony’s financial condition did not show any significant improvement in 2001.The company was severely affected by the slowdown in the IT industry during 2000–01, which led to a decline in the demand for its computer-related products. As a result, in spite of a 9. 4 per cent increase in revenue in the fiscal 2000–01 (mainly due to the improved sales of the PlayStation games console) Sony’s net income dropped significantly from ? 121. 83bn in the fiscal 1999–2000 to ? 16. 75bn in the fiscal 2000–01. Analysts commented that Sony required a new business model. The company had immediately to take concrete measures to increase its net income.Sony’s management also felt that with the emergence of net-compatible devices like cellular phones, audio and video g adgets and laptops, PCs were losing their charm. It felt that in the emerging age of ‘broadband’11 the demand for the above products was likely to increase in future. Sony’s management felt that in order to boost profitability and exploit the opportunities offered by the broadband era, there was a need for yet another organisational restructuring. RESTRUCTURING EFFORTS IN 2001 Sony announced another round of organisational restructuring in March 2001.The company aimed at transforming itself into a Personal Broadband Network Solutions company by launching a wide range of broadband products and services for its customers across the world. Explaining the objective of the restructuring, Idei said, ‘By capitalising on this business structure and by having businesses cooperate with each other, we aim to become the leading media and technology company in the broadband era. ’12 The restructuring involved designing a new headquarters to function as a hub for Sony’s strategy, strengthening the electronics business, and facilitating network-based content distribution.New headquarters to function as a hub for Sony’s strategy Under the new structural framework (see Exhibit 2), Sony’s headquarters was revamped into a Global Hub centred on five key businesses – electronics, entertainment, games, financial services and internet/ communication service. The primary role of the Global Hub (headed by the top management) was to devise the overall management strategy of the company. Sony’s management decided to integrate all the electronics business related activities under the newly created Electronic Headquarters (Electronics HQ).In order to achieve the convergence of Audio Video Products with IT (AV/IT convergence), Sony devised a unique strategy called ‘4 Network Gateway’. Under this strategy, the games and internet/communication service businesses were combined with the electronics hardware busine ss so that innovative products could be developed and offered for the broadband market. The three businesses were under the supervision of Ando. In order to provide support services for the entire group, a management platform was created, which consisted of key support functions in diverse fields such as accounting, finance, legal, intellectual 11An acronym for broad bandwidth, it is a high-speed, high-capacity data transmission channel that sends and receives information on coaxial cable or fibre-optic cable (which has a wider bandwidth than conventional telephone lines). This channel can carry video, voice and data simultaneously. 12 As quoted in the Annual Report 2002, www. sony. net. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 10 Restructuring Sony Exhibit 2 Sony organisational chart: electronics-related business (as of 1 April 2001)Source: ‘A New Group Structure for the Next Stage of Integrated, Decentralized Management’, www. sony. net, 29 March 2001. copyrights, human resources, information systems, public relations, external affairs and design. The management platform was later split into the Engineering, Management and Customer Service (EMCS) Company and the Sales Platform (which comprised the regional sales companies and region-based internet direct marketing functions). The management platform was headed by the Chief Administrative Officer, a newly created position.Sony’s management also converted the product-centric network companies into solution-oriented companies by regrouping them into seven companies. Group resources were allocated among the network companies on the basis of their growth potential. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 11 Restructuring Sony Strengthening electronics business To enhance the profitability of the electronics segment, Sony’s management decided to give emphasis to product development efforts. The management felt it was also essential to enhance the quality of the electronic devices manufactured.In order to achieve this, Sony’s management devised an innovative business model called the Ubiquitous Value Network,13 which connected the company’s existing hardware, content and services through an agency of networks. Sony planned to develop a wide range of products which could be connected through this network. Network-based content distribution Like the electronics, games and internet/communication service businesses, the entertainment and financial services businesses were also developed in a network compatible manner to facilitate electronic content distribution.In the entertainment business, music and movies were converted into a digital format and distributed over the internet (apart from being distributed through traditional channels such as music stores and theatres). In Japan, Sony Music Entertainment launched online music through its website. This website allowed customers to download popular songs for a f ee. In the financial services business, Sony Life Insurance Japan launched the ‘Life Planner’ consultancy system which offered personalised financial services online to its customers.Sony Life Assurance Japan also went online and started selling its insurance policies over the internet. The implications Soon after the reorganisation, Sony launched some innovative products to cater to the broadband market. For instance, in 2001, the company launched a series of internet-compatible mobile phones. However, the product was unsuccessful (owing to problems in the software used in the mobile devices) and in early 2002 Sony had to recall three batches of phones sold to Japanese companies. In consequence, Sony had to write off $110m in the quarter ending June 2002.In April 2003, Sony announced another major restructuring exercise (to be carried out in the next three years) in order to strengthen its corporate value (see Exhibit 3). Following this announcement, Sony was reorganis ed into seven business entities – four network companies and three business groups (see Exhibit 4). These business entities were given the authority to frame short-term and long-term strategies. According to analysts, the company’s financial performance did not improve in spite of the frequent restructuring by Sony’s management.For the financial year 2001–02, Sony’s operating income fell by a significant 40. 3 per cent while its revenues registered a marginal increase of 3. 6 per cent. According to a BusinessWeek report, sales of Sony’s most profitable products – the PlayStation and the PS2 game consoles – were likely to fall (see Exhibit 5). Due to Sony’s poor financial performance, the management planned to further reduce the number of manufacturing facilities and shift some production activities out of Japan.Analysts also criticised Sony for being a diversified business conglomerate engaged in several businesses from semiconductors to financial services. They felt that the company should focus on a few highly profitable businesses like games, insurance, and audio-video equipment and hive off the unprofitable businesses. Analysts felt that spending huge amounts of money on restructuring was not justified, particularly since the restructuring exercises had not yielded the expected results. In 2001, restructuring efforts had cost the company ? 100bn; and the proposed restructuring in April 2003 was expected to cost another ? 40bn. 13 The Ubiquitous Value Network is an environment in which PC and non-PC consumer electronics devices are seamlessly connected to each other and to the network, giving users access to all types of content or service, from anywhere across the globe. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 12 Restructuring Sony Exhibit 3 Sony organisational chart (as of 1 April 2003) Source: ‘Sony Announces Executive Appointments and Organizational Reforms Effec tive as of April 1, 2003’, www. sony. net, 31 March 2003. Exhibit 4 Responsibilities of network companies and business groups No. 2 3 Network company/ business group Home Network Company Broadband Network Company IT and Mobile Solutions Network Company 4 5 6 Micro Systems Network Company Game Business Group Entertainment Business Group Responsibility To create a new home environment with networked electronic devices centred on next-generation TV Development of next-generation electronics devices and linkages to Game devices To realise a connected world with PC and mobile devices and strengthen the B2B solutions business To enhance key devices and modules as core components of attractive set products To promote Game businesses for the broadband era To develop entertainment content businesses based on pictures and music and develop a new content business model for the network era To integrate various business units providing services based on direct contact with customers (fina nce, retail, etc). Strengthen synergies and develop attractive new business models for customers through the application of IT. 7 Personal Solutions Business Group Source: ‘Sony Announces Executive Appointments and Organizational Reforms Effective as of April 1, 2003’, www. sony. et, 31 March 2003. Analysts also felt that the convergence of consumer electronics, PCs and the internet was not only opening up new opportunities for Sony but also creating more competition for its core businesses. As Sony took steps to strengthen its networking capabilities, the company faced new forms of competition in both domestic as well as foreign markets. For instance, in the US, software giants like Microsoft and Sun Microsystems (as well as a few startups) were planning to enter the home entertainment market. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 13 Restructuring Sony Exhibit 5 Break-up of Sony’s businesses (31 March 2002)Business Electronics Games Insu rance Films Music Others Sales ($bn) 35. 6 7. 4 3. 7 4. 6 4. 5 0. 6 Operating profits ($m) 125 578 91 147 203 NA Source: ‘Can Sony Retain the Magic’, by Irene M. Kunii & Cliff Edward, BusinessWeek, 11 March 2002. Even Cisco Systems, which provided network solutions, had started manufacturing consumer electronics products. A BusinessWeek report said that Sony lacked any distinctive competencies in the internet-related businesses. It was neither an aggregator of content like Yahoo! , nor a limited-product vendor with an efficient distribution network such as Dell. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 14

Performance Measurement for WWP

Performance Measurement for WWP Introduction Performance measurement has been described as a key tool in the achievement of TQM (Total Quality Management) in all types of organizations. The traditional approach to performance measurement has been focused on the examination of financial performance of an organization. This has mainly focused on a performance indicator that is available through changes in either profits or losses.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Performance Measurement for WWP specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, researchers who work in this area indicate that cost accounting information does not avail a complete bundle of information to support quality journeys. This is because they do not consider a contingent of issues, such as improvements, seen by the customer. Furthermore, they focus on the examination of a stakeholder from the view of an investor or shareholder. This has presented a number of challenges for non-profit organizations with the main aim to serve a specific segment of the society. Furthermore, performance is best measured through an examination of all perspectives of an organization. Regardless of the industry, organizations have the responsibility to come up with strategies that make it easy for customers to not only know about their goods and services, but also have the desire to provide assistance with them (Armstrong, 2007). This feat is not easy to accomplish because of challenges businesses have to face. There is the issue of stiff competition from other businesses in the same industry, economic problems that hinder the customers’ willingness to buy some products, and the presence of several distractions, which have the potential to come in between the customer and the company’s products. These are just some of the challenges that managers have to deal with in their bid to reach out to the intended audience. Need For Performance Measurement Many organizations in th e todays business world recognize that there is the need to capture a complete picture of organizational performance. This has led to the incorporation of a whole cocktail of performance measurement tools in attempts to capture their organizations’ performances. It is within this perspective that the need to institute effective performance measurement mechanisms has attracted a host of organizations and researchers. General understanding is that through the entrenchment of a culture that takes cognizance of organizational objectives, a cocktail of benefits and efforts focused on better organizational performance can be implemented.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Kaplan and Norton (1992), the focus of these performance measurement initiatives should revolve around finances, internal processes, learning, growth and, of course, customers. In fa ct, empirical research on performance measurement shows that undertaking this process can help management with implementing the process that supports process improvement and development of a cost-effective product design (Turney, 1991), and avail managers with an integrative framework to manage organizational activities. WWP (Wounded Warrior Project) stands at a vantage position to meet the expectations of the stakeholders by examining the performance of the four major organizational perspectives i.e., learning and growth, customers, internal business processes and finances. The learning and growth perspectives â€Å"will be viewed as an attempt at promoting growth and development by creating an enabling atmosphere that supports change and innovation† (Amstrong, 2007). According to Armstrongs opinion (2007), this strategy should be boned in mind of any Chief Executive Officer of the organization in order to ensure an overall efficiency of the business process. This may be imp lemented through the modernization of the services or goods, especially through the employment of modern technology and replacement of obsolete equipments in order to cultivate and enhance better quality of services to clients’ satisfaction. Focus on infrastructure improvement should be paid cognizance to. The development of staff should also be carried out through creation of a learning organization and where organizational learning takes place at the same time as advocated for by Armstrong (2007). This should be carried out through the provision of avenues that promote learning, training, and development. It should be understood that while technology, products, and services can be replicated, knowledge cannot. In the global competition today, attention to the human capital has grown in bounds. To move forward and drive successful business, staff focus, engagement and involvement should be paid cognizance. Subsequent benefits would include better quality of services to achie ve total customer satisfaction, increase business, obtain lesser complaints, and a train a fully engaged workforce that is fully committed to its responsibilities.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Performance Measurement for WWP specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The internal business perspective, on the other hand, addresses issues related to how business processes are adopted to the needs of the customers and shareholders. This should be implemented through the creation of an internal infrastructure that supports high quality of services in time at a cost effective manner with registered benefits in overall businesses performance. Clients focus should ideally center on better service delivery and should reflect the company’s value attached to the customers (Armstrong, 2007). This should be applied through improvement of service delivery and creation of better efficiency in the delivery of services to the cl ients. Essentially, this should be geared towards timely and efficient services delivery to clients in a cost effective manner that ensures for sustained competitiveness. Ideally, the management should embrace strategies that ensure the delivery of high quality service and integrity, development of products that really match with the needs of the clients, ensure value for money spent and devise mechanisms that make it easier to do business with the clients. Finally, the financial perspective addresses how WWP wishes to be viewed by the stakeholders. The management can implement this though several initiatives. The first one would be the establishment of a price control that would allow for significant improvements in investment in the services that ensure better advantage. WWP will create strategy maps highlighting the areas it want to measure. This will act as the overall architectural framework specifying the critical elements and associated linkages for the overall strategy. This , in essence, acts as a universal message presentation forum for the top executives towards specification and subsequent presentation of the envisaged destination, mapping of the route to be followed and communication mechanisms. Stakeholder Analysis and Recommendation for Participation With the mission to honor and empower wounded soldiers, WWP consists of a number of stakeholders whose interests and views must be given cognizance in performance measurement program. These include the wounded soldiers, donors, families of the wounded soldiers, the government, and social welfare organizations. This is because for WWP to achieve its objectives, it must develop links with other industry players and enlist the support of its stakeholders.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ideally, the focus on well defined performance dimensions should require that the development of specific measures to be done, that helps to effectively monitor and progress in the articulated dimensions (Armstrong, 2007). As Kanji (1997) has noted, the dynamics of the operational environments dictates that the changing needs of all the stakeholders be captured in the performance measures. Consequently, it is important for WWP to examine performance from an internal as well as external perspectives, listen to customers, suppliers and other stakeholders, and not fall into the trap of building a self-centered performance measurement system. It is therefore necessary that WWP develop an ideal system that leads to the development, which supports learning and innovation. This should be the essential and final aim of a good performance measurement system that captures the interests and expectations of the stakeholders (Kanji, 1997). The complexity of an organizational management entails t he need for managers to view performance in a holistic manner, where several areas are captured simultaneously (Kanji, 1997). This should be structured around the tenets of several factors that provide performance of a multi and interrelated perspective, and is linked to organizations’ values and strategies. Furthermore, WWP’s performance measurement should be based on critical success factors or performance driver, valid, reliable, and easy to use, one that facilitates comparisons to be made and progress to be monitored, that is linked to the rewards system and encourages the appropriate behaviors and finally, one that highlights the improvement areas or recognizes the opportunities and suggests improvement strategies. As it can be deduced form the above presentations, it appears that the approach to performance management needs to be holistic, inclusive, and systematic. Essentially, a good performance system should present the combined effect of measuring different a spects or dimensions that are interacting or interrelating with each other. SWOC analysis of WWP A SWOC analysis is a major way to examine the position of a business and examine areas of weaknesses and challenges it needs to focus on and areas of strengths and opportunities it needs to explore. A SWOT analysis simply means looking at the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges to the business in order to achieve its strategic intents (Hill and Westbrook,1997). WWP has several strengths, a couple of weaknesses, several opportunities, and a small number of challenges. For example, WWP has the capacity to attract highly trained personnel from a large pool of wounded soldiers it seeks to serve. Furthermore, WWP has a well-established knowledge base, makes use of technology in its programs, and has extensive contacts with its clients. However, it is encompassed by a number of weaknesses that hinder to strive towards meeting its objectives. These include possible lack of moti vation and low reputation. This because WWP is still in its formative years and as such, has not developed extensive networks and attain reputation of high status. On the other hand, WWP has a number of opportunities, thus it can ensure that it lives up to the expectations of the stakeholders. These include availability of technological innovations to reach larger donor bases and increasing levels of understanding and empathy shown towards wounded soldiers. A number of challenges that reduce its capacity for competence can also be pointed out. WWP relies on donors for support and as such may suffer from the challenge of adequate resources to undertake its programs. Furthermore, it must be subjected to a number of government regulations that may limit its scope in soliciting funds and operations. Performance Measurement Performance management (PM) refers to the assessment of progress at different organizational levels, toward achieving predetermined goals, as well as communication an d action in response to actual progress (Bourne, 2003). Within this perspective, it is fundamental to recognize that PM is not merely a tool for operational management. On the contrary, it is, at its best, an overall, integrative approach, linking operational activities to strategic outcomes. Organizations in the business world employ some type of strategic planning in the development of objectives or initiatives. It has been advanced that the key to achieving success in the organization’s performance is an accurate and insightful linkage of the organizational visions and daily activities within the organization. Empirical evidence would however paint the picture that is not always easy or attainable (Armstrong, 2007). One of the chief bottlenecks has been cited as the use of poor performance measures (Kaplan and Norton, 2007). Several researchers have buttressed this point and pointed out that the lack of appropriate measurement tools as positively correlated to organization ’s failure to attain envisaged goals (Kaplan, 2007). For example, Armstrong (2007) in his study on organization’s use of performance measures has concluded that a majority of organizations fail to link their firms’ strategies with the performance measures. In the opinion of Kaplan (2007), the failure to encapsulate the strategic intents in performance measures has proved to be a major headache to many managers. This is particularly worrying when an effective measurement system provides the managers with an ample tool that can be employed in the assessment of whether activities occurring within a facility, division or department are in support of the attainment of the firms overall objectives as stipulated in the vision and missions of the firm. Brotherton and Hacker (2006) have pointed out that what is missing out in most management strategies may not be the planning aspect but rather the implementation. In their opinions, the implementation should encapsulate a n effective measurement system in order that the actions and plans are appropriately linked and are in tandem with the envisaged corporate objectives. This should ideally present an accurate presentation of where WWP is now and where it intends to be. A salient limitation has conversely been cited as the failure to link other aspects of organizational activities such as internal business organization, employees’ development, learning and organizational growth and customer relations in performance measures and the sole reliant on financial assessments of organizational performance. As Kaplan (2007) has pointed out, â€Å"over 70% of CEO failures came, not as a result of poor strategy, but the inability to execute.† Indeed, the departure from traditional financial measures as the anchorage on which organizational wellbeing is grounded has been pointed out as the reason for the invention of the Balanced Score Cards (Kaplan, 2007). According to Brotherton and Hacker (2006) , putting the organization vision and linking this to the strategy of organizations is the key ingredient to success in performance measurements, and thus, the strategic planning process should ideally encapsulate the strategic intents of the organization. This, to the authors opinion should be the starting point in effective measurement system. Essentially, the vision of the organization needs to be translated into specific, measurable objectives or initiatives. This is because by quantifying the vision through measurable objectives, an organization is able to determine whether it is on the right track. This will enable WWP to assess the rate of progress towards the attainment of the stipulated objectives. Unfortunately, majority of organizations appears not to pay heed to these sentiments (Armstrong, 2007). Armstrong (2007) has pointed out that performance measurements at their broadest forms that should involve the setting up of performance goals and the subsequent measurements o f the organization’s attainment or lack of such goals against a set criteria (Brotherton Hacker, 2006). Towards this, performance metrics are developed for each level and function within the organization, structured around the frameworks in order to facilitate the attainment of the envisaged goals and objectives. Thus, while the specific steps and verbiages may vary among the performance management methodologies and systems, the general bearing is essentially the same among the multitudes of organizations that claim to measure their performances. Kanji (1997) has observed that accounting figures alone do not provide a clear direction or an emphasis on whether the particular elements under scrutiny will result in good or poor financial results. This is because these financial measures may not pay cognizance to the need for improving customer satisfaction, quality, cycle time, or even employees’ motivation. Indicators of the Achievement for the Projected Outcomes As it has been stated above, performance measurement has been described as a key tool for the achievement of TQM (Total Quality Management). The main indicator for the achievement of the projected outcomes of the performance measurement in WWP will be the attainment of TQM constructs. These include leadership, management, and empowerment. In essence, TQM attainment in WWP as a non-profit organization calls for the inclusion of all stakeholders in decision-making. Total quality management (TQM) has been considered an important theme in business and management studies over the years due to its capability of influencing the desired outcomes of individuals and organizations alike (Kaplan, 2007). Various definitions of TQM have been used in numerous studies and no general definition of TQM exists in today’s literature. So far, the concept of TQM has different meanings to different individuals. Dale (1999) states that TQM refers to the overall participation of organizational members to e ffectively make use of their business processes and generate the products and/or services necessary for accommodating the needs and desires of customers. Meanwhile, Yang (2005) defined TQM as â€Å"a philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the foundation of a continuous improving foundation.† TQM can also be described as a continual process that aims at providing excellence by developing and maintaining the proper skills and characteristics among organizational members, so they can generate satisfaction among their customers (Lakhe and Mohanty, 1994). Similarly, Yang (2005) believes that TQM is a set of practices that promotes improvement, frequent evaluation of results, as well as long-term planning. Though there have been different definitions for TQM that have been mentioned above, the concept’s general principles and values are still described in each of them (Yang, 2005). TQM’s philosophy of management is centered on customers that encoura ges members of a TQM organization to efficiently facilitate the improvement of their company through the active involvement of employees. Within WWP, the individual concepts of process control, service quality, and quality improvement are all integrated into the TQM approach. Conclusion and Recommendations Many organizations in the business world today are recognizing that there is a need to adopt performance measurement tools that present a complete picture of organizational performance and are mushrooming towards effective tools in their performance measurements. WWP stands to reap a cocktail of benefits through the initiation, development, and implementation of effective performance measurement mechanisms that have the capacity to enhance its performances levels. As it has been stated above, critical organizational perspectives that should emphasize on this program include finances, internal processes, customers, growth and learning. These may be adjustable providing particular o rganizational contexts in terms of the number and perspectives. WWP is best placed to create strategy maps highlighting the areas they want to measure. This will act as the overall architectural framework specifying the critical elements and associated linkages of the overall strategy. This in essence acts as a universal message presentation forum for the top executives towards specification and subsequent presentation of the envisaged destination, mapping of the route to be followed and the communication mechanisms. The philosophy behind this step is developing a measure that goes beyond just financial performance. The advantages are that the manager can adopt a holistic view of the organizational performance, a cohesive and ongoing assessment is also possible, a focused connection of the top level and mid levels strategies is established, and it improves the organizational performance reporting system. The benefits of adopting performance measurement program outweigh its limitatio ns, chief among them the fact that the process of design and implementation is all-inclusive. While being a top down approach, the strategic intents still have to involve the mid level and floor employees. The key to success are therefore reliant on proper planning, implementation, and follow up and the performance measurement tool must have the capacity to present a more holistic approach to the organizational performances that would essentially encapsulate all the key elements of performance. References Armstrong, A. (2007). A hard book of human resources management. Kogan Page Publishers: London. Bourne, O. (2003). The balanced scorecard: translating strategy into action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Brotherton, L and Hacker, L. (2006). The golden rules for implementing the balanced business scorecard. ,Information Management Computer Security, 45 (3): 12-25. Hill, T. Westbrook, R. (1997). SWOT Analysis: It’s Time for a Product Recall. Long Range Plannin g, 30 (1): 46–52. Kanji, Y. (1997). Total quality management and the performance measurement barrier. The TQM Magazine, 10 (2): 45-63. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1992).The balance scorecard-measure that drive performance. Harvard business Review: Harvard. Lakhe, R.R. and Mohanty, R.P. (1994). Total quality management concepts, evolution and acceptability in developing economies. International Journal of Quality Reliability Management, 11 (9), 9-33. Turney, K. (1991). Essays on performance measurement models, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Australia. Yang, C.C. (2005). An integrated model of TQM and GE-Six Sigma. International Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive Advantage, 1 (1), 97-105.

Slavery in the USA Essay Example

Slavery in the USA Essay Example Slavery in the USA Essay Slavery in the USA Essay Essay Topic: In the Us The history of slavery is one of the constituent parts of the historical development of the Untied States, actually it started from the first settlers of the USA and only in the year 1865 Emancipation Proclamation declared freedom for all slaves. (Claudia, 1986)The first mentioning of slavery can be traced from 1619, when a Dutch ship transported twenty blacks to Virginia that was at that moment the English colony. Their position was defined as indentured servants. Later on this notion developed into racial slavery. Virginia Slave Codes defined the social position of slaves in 1705.During the times of British colonies there were various types of slaves: starting from house servants and to those who were engaged to work on farms and plantations. Farmers were growing rice, tobacco and cotton. Only rich farmers, owing good lands could buy expensive slaves for developing their cotton business. In the 17th century appeared the notion – Native slaves – slaves brought to other colonies. (Menard, 1995). Thousands of them were used for work on â€Å"sugar islands†.   Some tribes like for example Cherokees also bought black slaves during 1800 – 1830s.The situation with slaves after 1776 was rather tense, the attitude to slaves was mostly very brutal: it was allowed to whip them when they were working on plantations, it was even prescribed by slave codes. For black people there were also separate Black Codes, the fulfillment of theses codes was under the control of white patrollers, who in fact had the right to mutilate or even kill runaways. Slaves could never be sure that they will have the chance to live with their families as the owner could sell any of the family members if there was such necessity for him. There were also cases of rebel from slaves who escaped or tried to revenge their owners by burning barns or killing their possessors.   Owners when buying a slave had to provide clothes and food for him, some even paid bonuses, slav es were allowed to keep the money they earned with gambling or in lottery. There was even a case, when a slave won in the lottery and then was able to buy freedom for himself. (Claudia, 1986).The first sighs of abolitionism can be traced in the 1750s, when the gatherings of Quakers pushed their members to refuse from having slaves. The American Revolution brought the spirits and beliefs that slavery was a disaster for America and its white residents. Between the years 1780 and 1804 practically all Northern States signed the emancipation acts. In the Constitution of Massachusetts of 1780 appeared a statement that all people were â€Å"born free and equal† (Menard, 1995).At the beginning of the 19th century this movement was gaining strength in the whole country.   There was even a campaign organized to deliver back the black people – former slaves who wanted to return to their homeland. This movement suddenly received a support from religion as well, in 1830 William L loyd Garrison stated that slavery was a personal sin and appealed to refusing from it. In spite of the best intentions of the movement, in reality this was the main reason of the Civil War in America.In fact refusal from slavery seemed to be not so easy step for economics, especially after the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 by Eli Whitney (Barzel, 1985). This led to increase of cotton need fifty times, which in its way resulted in growing need for more slavers’ labour in the southern states. The cotton boom coincided with slavery ban in the North of the country. However not all slaves became free, a lot of them were in reality shipped to the states where there was no ban for slavery yet, this means to the South. The situation was getting tenser due to the increased number of slaves in the South; slave owners became even more convinced that slaves can not be freed because of their fear of consequences.   The supplies of slaves from outside were stopped from 1808 by the decision of the Congress, however the inside slave trade was still allowed.   After in 1820s Midwestern states also banned slavery and in the North states slaves became free due to emancipation policy, the country was divided into two parts by the Ohio River into a slave part and into a free part. This distinction between northern and southern parts of the country grew even stronger when â€Å"with the formation of the Southern Baptist Convention on the premise that the Bible sanctions slavery and that it was acceptable for Christians to own slaves† (Menard, 1995).Franciscan mission resulted in development of slavery in colonial and Mexican California. Officially it was called Native labour, in reality this was continual slavery. After inroad from America in 1848, native inhabitants of California were made slaves with the help of so-called four-month penalty for â€Å"vagrancy† (Menard, 1995). At the same time in Kansas the situation was also rather tense. In 1854 Ka nsas- Nebraska Act was signed and it was up to natives to decide whether Kansas State should be a free or a slave state. John Brown was doing his best in supporting the abolitionist movement, but Republicans were too much afraid of the slaves’ possible control of the national government.When the time for presidential election in 1860 came, the absolute partition in the country became evident. The main parties could not come to an agreement: the Southern Democrats supported slavery, The Republicans wanted to stop it, The Northern Democrats stated that all the states should take local decisions, as this would mean the real democracy, at last the Constitutional Union Party struggled for the durability of the Union. Lincoln, the representative of Republicans won the election. The great problem was that abolition of slavery presented not only moral issue, this could also negatively influence the state of economy in the county, which was already used to the profits brought by worke rs, who needed no salary. There was also a point of view that the balance in the country, which was sustained with the help of number of slave and free states, could be broken. Mostly the South was concerned, because this part of the country depended a lot on agriculture, whereas in the north the industry could develop quite well without slaves. For Lincoln slavery was first of all political problem and he would prefer to have more control over the Mississippi river region. (Barzel, 1985)The logical consequence of this opposition was the Civil War in 1861, which resulted in final abolition of slavery. On the 1st of January 1863, Lincoln signed Emancipation Proclamation. After the war around four million slaves were set free, which made more than 12 % of the whole population in the USA. Arizona and Tennessee states revoked slavery in 1863-1865 by the special Acts passed and the Union army freed the rest of the slaves in the southern states. This was actually the formal end of slavery in the USA and it was followed by the period of Reconstruction.Overall, the history of slavery in America was long and controversial, full of sufferings and political intrigues. Slavery played great role in the economical development of the country, of the other side weakening its moral and cultural traditions in a way. We mentioned briefly some key events of the whole slavery history, omitting the description of rebels and names of the slaves who took part in them, omitting the details of all hardships that enslaved people had to come through and so on.

How to Style Legislative Terms

How to Style Legislative Terms How to Style Legislative Terms How to Style Legislative Terms By Mark Nichol Capitalization style for words and phrases related to legislation and international agreements is fairly straightforward, but here are some notes about treatment: Constitutions The phrase â€Å"US Constitution† (or â€Å"United States Constitution,† though the form with initials alone is sufficient) should be capitalized as such, as should names of state constitutions (â€Å"the California Constitution,† for example), but the word on its own is lowercased even as a subsequent reference to a specific document. The same is true of a word for components of a constitution, such as article. Names of specific amendments to the US Constitution are capitalized, but whether words or numerals are used to indicate them is contingent on which authority is used: The Chicago Manual of Style, the style manual of record for book publishers, calls for generally spelling out numbers up to one hundred, but the Associated Press Stylebook, which prescribes style for newspapers (some magazines and many Web sites adhere to it as well), uses numerals for 10 and up. So, write â€Å"Thirteenth Amendment† or â€Å"13th Amendment† according to the style your self-selected or externally appointed style guide recommends. Proposed amendments to the Constitution are often identified by their chief proponent (for example, â€Å"the Bricker Amendment†) or their aims (â€Å"the Equal Rights Amendment,† though some people argue that because there is no such amendment, only a movement to pass one, it should not be validated with capitalization). Bills and Acts A proposal for a new law enacted by the US Congress is offered as a bill. A bill proposed in the House of Representatives is given the body’s initials and a number (HR 99), followed by the name of the bill; a Senate is identified similarly (S 13). (As with US and other abbreviations, the initials are often followed by periods, but this style is unnecessary.) This style isn’t exactly mirrored in state and local legislation; for example, in the California Assembly, the local equivalent of the House of Representatives, a bill is abbreviated AB (for â€Å"Assembly Bill.†) If passed, the bill becomes an act, such as the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act of 2010. (Note that the year of enactment is often but not always part of the official name of the act.) In generic usage, even to a specific act, the word act is lowercased, though many legislative bodies and associated publications capitalize it when it refers to a specific act, as in â€Å"The Act would reverse a long-standing military policy that discriminates against gay service personnel.† Many other names for legislation exist, including code, ordinance, and statute. These words are capitalized as part of the name of a body of laws, such as â€Å"Civil Code† or â€Å"Municipal Code,† but are otherwise lowercased. Treaties and Such Nomenclature for treaties includes formal and informal styles. For example, one notable example’s formal name is the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, but the treaty associated with the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks is informally called the SALT treaty (with treaty lowercased because that is not the official name). A similar international understanding is referred to as an agreement, as in â€Å"the Sykes-Picot Agreement.† Then there is an armistice, which is merely a cessation of hostilities that may or may not be followed by a peace treaty. Many notable armistices have occurred, requiring specific nomenclature such as â€Å"the Korean War Armistice Agreement,† but the default event, that formalizing the end of World War I, is referred to simply as â€Å"the Armistice.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Possessive of Proper Names Ending in SWhat is the Difference Between Metaphor and Simile?